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Introduction
Farming
Animals
PIGS--------Small-Scale Pig Raising
______________________________________________________________________________
This article is designed for the small producer. It contains general information on care, feeding and marketing of feeder pigs, sows and litters. Answers to specific questions can be obtained from your county agent.
Facilities
First of all, check the zoning regulations for your land. Also, you should make sure that your neighbors will not be bothered by odors. Two or more well-drained acres serve as a buffer and provide space for manure disposal.
In planning for your swine keeping equipment and structures, keep the following points in mind. The fence must be hog-proof. 36" woven wire, with a strand of barbed wire below it one inch above the ground and one inch below the woven wire is recommended.
For shelter, an open-fronted shed with plywood hinged sides is fine for Florida. Fifteen square feet of shade area is needed for each animal.
For preventing the possible spread of contagious diseases, an isolation area for new animals is desirable.
Fence off an area with a four-foot radius around trees to keep the animals from damaging them. A covered self-feeder on a wood or concrete platform is desirable and aids sanitation. Provide fresh water at a rate of one to three gallons per animal per day or six gallons per day for a sow and her litter.
Make sure the watering trough will not double as a wallow.
Disease and Parasites
Buy from a reputable producer and inquire about the health status of the pigs before you buy. Healthy feeders are more efficient and healthy stock is vital to a breeding program. Find out what diseases are prevalent in your area and arrange for vaccination and treatment if necessary. Internal parasites are a constant problem, and animals should be dewormed within two weeks after they arrive on your property and then again about three weeks later. Repeat thereafter as often as necessary. Consider working with your veterinarian on diagnosis and treatment of parasites and work out a health program for the entire herd. Table 1 lists the available deworming products and Table 2 the sprays and dips that work well against lice and mange mites. Foot dip also helps prevent the spread of disease to your farm - provide it for all visitors.
Finishing Feeders
Growing hogs (40 to 120 pounds) should be provided with a self-feeder containing a complete feed, or corn mixed with a supplement. In either case, 16 percent protein with the vitamns and minerals listed in Table 5 is recommended.
Antibiotics are of little value after the pigs reach 120 lbs. At that point, switch to a 14 percent protein ration. Tables 5 through 8 contain information for computing rations and amounts of feed required per year. See Table 7 and Table 8 at the end of the document. Hogs are ready for market around 220 lbs. (210-230). Some people slaughter hogs on the farm for their own use (see References), but most people now send them to a custom slaughter plant. Check with the Cooperative Extension Service in your county for details on both methods. To sell your animals, check with the local auction market, packing plant or buying station (where available).
Raising a Litter
Two alternatives when raising a litter are: Purchase a bred gilt (she may cost more, but buying and keeping a boar can be more expensive); Purchase a gilt and boar and start your own breeding program. Spring is the best time for farrowing; the weather is mild and extra shelter is not needed beyond that previously mentioned. However, individual houses such as A-frame huts provide more protection to baby pigs, not only from the elements but their dams as well. Huts also serve to discourage buzzards and other varmints.
Care of the Sow
A sow should be fed about four pounds daily of a 14-16% protein feed during gestation, depending on her condition. Three weeks before farrowing, increase the amount to approximately six pounds but withhold feed the day she farrows. If constipation is a problem, add epsom salts, bran or oats to her feed. Gradually increase the sow's feed after farrowing to about 12 pounds per day. Use common sense: if she is getting fat, cut back; if too thin, feed more of the same feed - do not change the protein content.
After weaning there are several advantages to selling the sow immediately (within three weeks): You avoid the trouble and expense of acquiring a boar for rebreeding; The price of a cull sow is usually enough to buy a bred gilt; If you raised the gilt, and she is a year old, only 40% of the proceeds are taxed under the capital gains provision; There is a three month break between selling the litter as finished hogs and buying another bred gilt to farrow the following spring. Keeping hogs off the land during this time cuts down the likelihood of disease and parasites. It also gives you a break.
There are some disadvantages:
Gilts tend to have smaller litters, and lack the immunity sows have had time to build: Your feed bill is usually higher since the gilt is still growing and requires more feed; The capital gains provision does not apply if you did not raise the gilt and you can depreciate a sow: You may be able to lower fixed costs by farrowing more than once a year.
If you plan to sell the sow, keep her at least one week, because a wet sow is usually docked. In addition, for the first couple of weeks after weaning, a sow has very good feed conversion rate. After that, however, you will start losing money by keeping her.
If the sow is kept, withhold feed one day prior to weaning to stop milk production. After weaning, breed back on the first heat cycle (3-8 days after weaning), preferably mating her twice, 12 to 24 hours apart. If she is too thin, delay breeding until the second estrus. Cut feed to four pounds a day right after breeding, in the first case; if you wait until the second heat, cut to four pounds at weaning. You may also want to investigate the possibility of using AI (artificial insemination) instead of buying or leasing a boar.
Care of Baby Pigs
It is vital that pigs nurse soon after birth since colostrum gives them some protection against infection the first few weeks. Iron shots are not necessary if the litter is farrowed outside (on pasture or dirt), but are recommended as insurance. Give the shots intramuscularly in the neck. Prestarter feed with added edible iron and TBZ powder may be offered in a shallow pan when pigs are seven to ten days old. Place it where the sow cannot get to it.
At weaning, (three to six weeks old, weighing at least 12 pounds), pigs can be fed an 18% CP starter. One hundred to 250 grams (3.5-7.5 oz.) of antibiotics per ton of feed can be added to give pigs a good start, but do not abuse the use. Consult the Drug Withdrawal Guide, available through the Extension service, because the FDA is getting stricter about residues. At 60 pounds pigs can be treated as described under Finishing Feeders.
To improve profits, concentrate on saving as many pigs as possible from birth to market. If you want to sell the litter as feeders (40-60 pounds) ask your county agent for the schedule of feeder pig sales in your area. Make sure pigs are weaned, vaccinated and dewormed, and the males castrated. Pigs with docked tails also may have an advantage. Buyers are looking for the same thing you are: thrifty, growthy, alert pigs they can feed for a profit. If you build a reputation for having good pigs, when you decide to expand, your market will already be developed.
Care of the Boar
Provide separate 1/4-acre pens for each boar. Shade requirements are the same as those for finishing hogs. Except during the breeding season, feed about five pounds a day of the sow ration. During the breeding season, increase the amount to six to eight pounds. Follow a vaccination and deworming program, and provide fence line contact between the sows and boar a few weeks before breeding. As your herd expands, consider keeping at least one extra boar in case something happens to the herd sire.
Pearson's Square
Depending on the amount of protein your pig needs, the ratio of corn to high-protein supplement or soybean meal will vary. One way to decide just how much corn and supplement must be mixed to make the resulting feed have the right percentage of protein is to use Pearson's Square.
In this example 70% corn and 30% supplement is needed to make an 18% protein feed. On a per ton basis, 1400 pounds of corn is mixed with 600 pounds of the supplement to make a ton of complete feed. The corn and supplement can also be fed separately.
Glossary
AI - artificial insemination.
Barrow- male pig castrated before reaching sexual maturity.
Boar- male hog or pig with intact testicles.
Castrate- remove testicles by surgery.
Colostrum- first milk produced by the sow; it provides immunity to the baby pigs for the first few weeks.
Creep feeder- area accessible to small pigs but not their dams, in which a high protein supplement is provided.
Cull sow- full-grown female sold for slaughter.
Dressing percent- percentage of the carcass usable, compared to liveweight.
Farrow- to give birth to pigs.
Flush feed- increase feed to stimulate ovulation in females.
Full-(self)-feed- animals are allowed to eat as much as they will clean up; feed is available at all times.
Gestation period- pregnancy, lasting about 114 days in swine.
Gilt- young female that has not yet produced a litter.
Growing-finishing pig- animal weighing between 40 and 220 lbs. that is being fed for slaughter.
Runt- small or weak pig in a litter.
Shrink- weight loss, usually temporary. Sow- female which has farrowed at least once.
Wallow- water-filled depression or container large enough for pigs to lay in to cool off during warm weather.
Weaning- removing young from their mother.
Yield- percentage of the carcass in the four lean cuts: ham, loin, picnic and Boston butt.
Reprinted from UF/IFAS Circular 470, Date first printed: January 1980. Reviewed May 1997.
Melvin
L.
Hamre
Extension Animal Scientist—Poultry
Egg producers may want to cull poor performing hens from their laying flocks. Poultry breeders consider egg production as well as other qualities when selecting breeding stock. Contestants in poultry judging contests judge classes of egg production hens and pullets by placing the birds in order of their laying performance as indicated by body characteristics. The ability to recognize and properly evaluate the egg production characteristics of the bird is essential for all these purposes.
Before you handle any birds, look them over while they are in the cages. Stand back a few feet and observe their body conformation, head type, health, and vigor. You often can get a general idea of bird characteristics from this preliminary observation. Then, you are ready to handle the birds.
Handle the birds gently. Always remove a bird from the cage head first and replace it head first. To remove a bird, grasp its wing with your right hand over its back and gently move the bird toward the front of the cage. Place your left hand beneath the bird's body with two fingers between its legs, letting the bird rest on the palm of your hand. Now you can quietly lift the bird off its feet and out of the cage. You can easily examine and control a bird while holding it in this manner. Birds housed in floor pens may have to be confined by fencing in a small area so they can be more easily caught for examination.
Develop a definite system for examining a bird. For example, examine in order the head, abdomen, and vent to determine present laying condition. Then check pigmentation and molt for judging past production in birds of laying age.
In judging contests, birds will be judged by comparison for egg production qualities. The bird with the best production qualities will be placed first, the next best second, the next third, and the poorest fourth. After you have handled the birds, you should be able to make your placings. In some classes, it is easiest to pick the top and bottom bird and then, using the same judgment factors, to place the better of the middle pair second, and the other, third. In other classes, you might choose a top pair and bottom pair, then rank the birds in each pair to place the class.
It is relatively easy to determine whether or not a hen is in production. Check the condition of the comb, pubic bones, abdomen, and vent. If a hen is laying, her comb and wattles should be large, red, soft, and waxy; the pubic bones should be flexible and wide apart; the abdomen should be full, soft, and pliable; and the vent should be large, moist, and free of pigment. A good layer should have more than two fingers spread between the pubic bones and three or more fingers spread between the pubic bones and the tip of the keel.
When a hen is out of production, her comb and wattles may be small, pale, and shriveled; the pubic bones are rigid and close together; the abdomen is hard and tight; and the vent is small, dry, and pigmented. Do not confuse a fatty abdomen with one that is soft and pliable due to laying condition.
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The yellow pigment is bleached from the body parts in a definite order. After a hen has laid just a few eggs, the pigment is bleached from the edges of the vent. The edges of the eyelids (called the eyering) will be bleached next, followed by the earlobes. The pigment of the beak fades first at the corners of the mouth, progressing toward the tip as production continues. Complete loss of pigment in the beak takes 4 to 6 weeks.
The feet and shanks take from 4 to 6 months to completely lose their pigmentation. Color is first lost from the bottoms of the feet, then from the front of the shanks, then from the rear of the shanks, and finally from the tops of the toes and the hock joint.
When a hen stops laying, the pigment returns to her body parts in the same order that it leaves, but at a much faster rate. Pigmentation is a good indicator of egg production for the first six months a bird has been laying. And, when a bird has stopped production long enough for pigment to return to some body parts, it is an indicator of how long the bird has been out of production.
Rate of lay and individual variations between birds can influence how rapidly pigmentation changes take place. The more pigment there is at the start, the longer it will take for all the pigment to fade. Pigmentation changes generally take place faster in small hens than in heavies. Low vitality birds may also have faded pigment due to abnormalities or disease and yet not be good producers. Even though variations do exist, pigmentation is still a good estimate of past production.
A hen that shows characteristics of being in production by an enlarged and moist vent, well developed and waxy comb and wattles, an active and alert appearance but little loss of pigment, and very little feather wear, has probably been in production for only a short time. On the other hand, a hen that appears to have been in production for a long period of time but has not lost much pigment (a hen with bleached vent and beak but with shanks still showing pigment long after other hens are completely bleached) is probably laying few eggs.
When a hen molts, she usually stops laying. A poor producer often will go through a slow molt, taking 16-18 weeks. A high producer will delay molt for a longer period and may take only eight weeks to complete the molt. Generally, a hen will start to drop her head, neck, and body feathers before she loses any wing feathers. A hen loses her primary wing feathers first, followed by the main tail and wing secondaries.
The best way to determine time and rate of molt is to spread open and examine the wing. The first feather molted is the primary next to the axial feather (the short feather at the middle of the wing separating the primaries and secondaries). Molt of primaries continues outward toward the wing tip. A good layer will drop three to five wing feathers at a time and molt much more rapidly than a poor producer that loses only one or two feathers at a time.
It takes about six weeks to grow a new feather. The wing of a rapid molter will have groups of growing feathers of the same length, while the slow molter will have feathers in many stages of maturity. New feathers usually will be clean, smooth, and more attractive than old feathers, which may be worn, soiled, or broken.
DEER
The red deer's origin traces back to European soil. They were introduced into New Zealand in 1861. Without natural predators and with New Zealand's lush topography, deer populations flourished. By the early 1900s overgrazing had caused a serious reduction in the forest cover and erosion. Bounties provided the incentive to cull the herds. By the 1960s, up to 100,000 deer carcasses per annum were being recovered, providing the New Zealand entrepreneurs with a supply of wild or feral venison to market to European destinations.
The demand for this feral venison led to the live capture, domestication and commercial farming of red deer. The first commercial deer farming license was granted in 1969. Today there are 1.2 million deer being farmed on some 4,000 farms. Red Deer Farming in 1998 generated 185,000,000 worth of export business for New Zealand, with a positive long-term outlook for continued growth. (Venison earned $130,000,000 other products earned $65,000,000).
New Zealand has spent over 20 years building up sufficient breeding stock levels to ensure a consistent and reliable supply of venison and by-products to existing and growing markets. The New Zealand Game Industry Board forecasts that the increasing world demand for this healthy and superb-tasting "gourmet red meat of the future" will outstrip world supply for many years to come.
New Zealand Red Deer have been commercially farmed and profitably harvested for venison and other valuable end products for over 20 years. These domesticated red deer are gentle-natured and easy to care for. As livestock, they efficiently convert pasture to protein, producing a high proportion of lean meal to live weight.
Male red deer, or "stags," can grow to a weight of 550 pounds, while the females, or "hinds," can reach 210 pounds at maturity. Stags are processed for venison at about 15 months to 18 months of age weighing approximately 240 pounds. The dressed carcass weight is about 135 pounds. In comparison, the white-tailed deer is about two-thirds the size of a red deer.
Female red deer have an average expected productive life of 14 years. They begin breeding as yearlings and on the average produce one offspring per year, with an even split between male and female.
Red deer are pastured in summer with little or no feed supplements, while in winter full feed supplementation is provided.
The red deer have proven to be the most exciting and successful introduction of a major livestock animal in the last century.
Deer Farming Basics
The New Zealand deer industry is extensive in its scale and operation. Deer are able to roam and graze freely, in natural conditions. No hormones or growth promotants are licensed for use in New Zealand deer.
New Zealand deer graze on natural pasture, primarily rye grasses with some specialist pastures such as chicory. In winter when grass growth is limited, supplementary feeds such as grains or preserved pasture may be fed out. Deer are naturally healthy and adaptable animals and thrive in New Zealand's temperate climate.
Fallow
Fallow deer farming is well established in New Zealand, although now occupies a small highly specialized niche as premium venison with a relatively small number of farmers.
Fallow are robust and can be farmed throughout New Zealand with a very low labour and daily cost input.
Fallow deer adapt readily to any farming environment being equally at home on lush, low lying high producing land to steep hilly farms.
Fallow deer are highly seasonal breeders. Does cycle in autumn, beginning from ten to fifteen April, with a 21 day oestrus.
About 85 per cent of Does usually conceive at first mating. Gestation lasts 234 days, with fawning in December.
To improve performance many producers are using Danish, English, Hungarian or Mesopotamian bloodlines.
The Mesopotamian Fallow has become very popular, with hybrid bucks having real value as terminal sires improving carcase weights at 12- 15 months by as much as 15-17 percent. Female offspring are being retained as replacement breeding does of increased size to advance the mean fawning date by 10 - 14 days.
Red Deer
New Zealand was fortunate to have such an extensive feral population of red deer, which are arguably the best species of deer for farming.
Their easy handling, strongly social nature and adaptability to New Zealand pastures makes them a particularly easy and productive animal to farm.
They also have an ability to naturally crossbreed with the great diversity of strains and sub species of cervids . The planned use of genes for size and growth is just one factor in extending the range and diversity of on farm operations that allow a flexible approach to supplying different markets
An adult red stag weighs over 200 kg live-weight, with top animals reaching up to 340 kg.
An adult red hind averages 90 to 120 kg, with top animals reaching up to 140 kg.
Single sire mating, that is, one stag with a group of hinds per paddock is by far the preferred mating system for red deer. Ratios of 1:60 or greater are now common allowing a quicker spread of genetic superiority. The red deer gestation period is approximately 233 days with fawning in November & December.
Wapiti/Elk
Wapiti, also known as North American Elk are a subspecies of Cervus Elpahus and while they resemble red deer superficially they are a distinctly North American animal. They are a much larger animal, however pose no special problems in handling. An adult bull weighs up to 460 kg live-weight and an adult cow reaches up to 280 kg.
Wapiti/elk have a longer gestation period than red deer, 248-254 days, but with proper management they will start mating earlier in the breeding season. Single sire mating is preferred at 1:40 ratios.
Wapiti/elk bulls are often used as terminal sires over red hinds as a means to increase venison production by allowing heavier carcase weights or a quicker time to reach a minimum target weight.
Wapiti/elk velvet generally has a thick beam, is substantially heavier than average red deer velvet and is the closest that New Zealand producers come to the more traditional Chinese and Russian product.
Handling Facilities
For all breeds, design of the handling facility and access to it, are most important, however there is no single design of deer facilities which is best in all situations. On new farms, the yards should be positioned to allow for transport access in all weather, connection to power supply and water, security and a range of mob sizes, while taking into account the farm's size and its natural features. The design should allow for easy sorting and handling, treatment and care of the health and welfare needs of the animals.
Shelter
Strategic planting forming visual blocks between paddocks assists management of stags during the roar and aids the settling of deer in many other instances.
Planting along fence lines towards gateways can create a desirable flow-round-the-corner effect into lanes or other paddocks.
Shade for lactating hinds in summer and on flat paddocks with no natural shelter in winter, should be given a high priority.
Record Management
Record keeping is essential to an effective management plan.
Accurate records appropriate to customer needs and farm production should be kept by all farmers.
Herd details and farming practices which affect animal health and final product quality such as age, origin and animal remedies applications are a minimum requirement.
Mating Management
Single sire mating, that is, one stag with a group of hinds per paddock is by far the preferred mating system for Red & Wapiti deer. Irrespective the key is to have the stags joining their mating groups in early March rather than delaying the introduction until later.
Hinds generally aren't ready to mate much before the 20th, but early introduction serves to concentrate the patterns and increase numbers conceiving to the first cycle. The first stag used should be removed and a back up stag introduced after not more than two mating cycles.
During the breeding season, a Red hind will be on heat every 18 days, a Wapiti cow every 21 days. If possible, it is desirable to keep spare paddocks between mating groups on the farm. Along with single sire mating, this strategy helps to stop stags from fighting.
A concentrated fawning is desirable and can be improved by early weaning and a rising plane of nutrition for breeding hinds.
To ensure calves are born pre Christmasfrom a Red hind/Red stag mating, remove the stag around 7 May (that is, 233 + 5 days For Red hind/Wapiti bull matings, remove the bull around 1 May (that is, 242 days + 5 days before New Years day).
Fawning dates estimated from mating dates(assumed as the first day of each oestrous cycle) for Red deer, Hybrids and Wapiti
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Stag |
Red |
Wapiti |
Wapiti |
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Hind |
Red |
Red |
Wapiti |
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Gestation length |
233 |
239 |
250 |
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Start 1st cycle |
22 March |
22 March |
12th March |
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Fawning date |
10 November |
15 November |
19 November |
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Start 2nd cycle |
9 April |
9 April |
1st April |
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Fawning date |
28 November |
7 December |
10 December |
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Start 3rd cycle |
27 April |
27 April |
2 May |
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Fawning date |
16 December |
25 December |
1 January |
Feed Management
Experienced venison producers acknowledge that good feed management is essential and the concept of strategic feeding when the animals have their natural ability to grow in autumn and spring is being widely adopted.
Among the issues that need to be understood are seasonality and the effects on: the growth on young deer, their feed requirements and practical day to day management.
Deer will make nearly 40% of their annual weight gain in spring, so supplying the highest quality pasture is a major priority at this time from as early as late August when the growth spurt kicks in.
A failure to meet target weights gives early warning that feed management needs fine tuning. This is important for deer because of their seasonal growth cycle. An ability to grow well in spring and summer must be efficiently utilised, since opportunities lost then cannot be caught up in winter. Weighing at the end of autumn, winter and summer is ideal to monitor progress.
Feed Budgeting
All welfare codes are based on the "Five Freedoms". High on the list is the freedom from hunger and thirst. Animals deserve enough food to maintain them. In a young growing animal, mere maintenance is not a stable state but may be endured for short periods over the worst of winter.
Precise feed budgeting is a complex area with a large number of variables. All cannot be considered in a grossly simplified approach and it is suggested that individuals do some background reading to make themselves more familiar with the skills involved. Once familiar with the process, individuals may substitute the base data with details particular to the local area.
The figures provided here are guides only, as they relate to maintenance levels and not to the feeding levels required for optimum animal performance.
The following information needs to be calculated when performing a feed budget:
Average winter length
Days where pasture growth drops below stock demand. Eg.North Auckland 80 days, Waikato 100 days...South Otago 120+ days
Average winter growth rates
18kg DM/Ha in the North to 5 in the South
Effective grazing area
Winter stocking rates
Classes and numbers (including other stock) plus any winter sales policy
Supplements available (and an estimate of feed quality)
Hay, silage etc and including crops grown or possible grazing off
Opening pasture cover
This can only be an estimate as assessment may take place at a date widely different from the suggested May 1 start date. The best estimate can be gained from supporting information, such as previous winter growth rates for weaners and slaughter detail of yearlings killed. Adapt the figures below to suit your own area:
2000kg DM/Ha for high performance properties
1700kg DM/Ha for moderate performance properties
1300kg DM/Ha for poorer performance properties
Nitrogen or N based fertiliser
The time of application and expected growth rates. Nitrogen will not grow grass if applied at the wrong time, when temperature or moisture is limiting.
Pasture and Feed utilisation
Varies from 85% on intensive operations to 65% on extensive situations
Base Data:Winter Feed Demands
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Stock Classes |
Kilograms dry matter per day |
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Red Hinds |
2.0 kg DM/day |
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Red Weaners |
1.5-2.1 kg DM/day(45-75kg body weight) |
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Red Stags |
3.0 kg DM/day (velvet) |
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Breeding Stags |
3.5 kg DM/day |
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Red Yearling Females |
2.2 kg DM/day |
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Red Yearling Spikers |
2.6 kg DM/day |
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Wapiti Hinds |
2.6-3.0 kg DM/day |
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Wapiti Weaners |
1.9-2.5 kg DM/day |
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Wapiti Stags |
3.5 kg DM/day |
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Breeding Bulls |
4.0-5.0 kg DM/day |
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Wapiti Yearling Females |
2.7 kg DM/day |
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Wapiti Yearling Spikers |
3.0 kg DM/day |
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Cattle Adult |
7.0 kg DM/day |
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Yearlings |
4-5 kg DM/day |
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Sheep |
1.kg DM/day |
It is ideal for mature hinds in good condition post mating to maintain body weight over winter. Wapiti feeding levels vary according to the percentage of Elk genes or the live weight of the animals. Periods of extreme cold and wet increase demands greatly. In fact in temperatures of less than 5 degrees and no shelter, deer convert feed into energy for warmth instead of growth
Average Crop Yields
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Crops |
Kilograms dry matter |
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Hay |
85% DM 1 Bale = 14kg/DM (small bale) |
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Silage |
20-28% DM Quality & Conservation very important |
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Rape |
4000 - 5500 kg DM/hectare |
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Turnips (soft) |
4500 - 6000 kg DM/hectare |
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Kale |
6000 - 8000 kg DM/hectare |
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Swedes |
5500 - 7500 kg DM/hectare |
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Oats/Barley |
3000 - 4000 kg DM/hectare |
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Maize silage |
15,000 - 22,000 kg DM/hectare |
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Winter Rye grass |
3000 - 5000 kg DM/hectare |
*Based on average yields for reasonable to good crops
Winter pasture Growth
Winter Days X Effective AreaHectares X Average Area Growth Rate (Kg DM/Ha/Day)
Example
Northland 15-20 dry matter/hectare/day
Waikato 7-14 dry matter/hectare/day
South North Island 4-7 dry matter/hectare/day
Canterbury 3-5 dry matter/hectare/day
Otago 0-5 dry matter/hectare/day
Winter growth rates are available from MAF
A
key to bigger antlers
By Deerfarmer.com
Jul 26,
2003, 09:00
Whether you are raising elk or red deer for the velvet antler market, or whitetail bucks for hunting preserves, bigger antlers mean more profits. So what are the secrets to growing larger antlers?
Dr. George Bubenik, a University of Guelph zoology professor, has spent the last 35 years studying deer and their antlers. He feels three factors are responsible for good antlers: nutrition, genetics and stress.
Nutrition
Here
are some feeding considerations that affect antler size.
The animal feed should contain about 14 percent protein; anything higher is wasteful and may cause damage to the animal's waste elimination systems.
One of the secrets to large antlers may lie in the amount of calories available to deer. However, timing is important. Energy and protein provided in early spring, at least two weeks prior to "button drop," may help set the yield potential for the season. Also, getting bulls/bucks in shape for a month after the rut give the animals a better start in the spring. Overfeeding during the winter months is a waste because of the cervids' slowed winter metabolism.
Providing a balance of livestock minerals, including calcium and phosphorus, is important. The deer and elk will take what they need.
Genetics
The
genetics of the male AND female are important to make big antlers.
Producers must know the genetic heritage on both sides of their
animals.
Stress
Nervous
deer should not be used as breeding stock. Stocking rates and
handling systems also play a critical role in producing larger
antlers.
Research has shown that deer will produce smaller antlers the following year if they are under pressure in the rut, are kept low in the herd hierarchy, or have had to concentrate on foraging or defending small territories. Stress lowers the testosterone level that is needed for good antler growth the following year. Producers need to practice good management techniques to keep stress down if they want larger antlers.
For more on this topic, see these two articles in the Western Producer that provided the source material for this article -- http://www.producer.com/articles/20020221/news/20020221news21.html and http://www.producer.com/articles/20020221/news/20020221news21a.html
Feeding
elk in the aftermath of a drought
By Jyson
Galbraith
Jul 26, 2003, 09:17
Jayson Galbraith, M.Sc., Elk/Bison Production Specialist, Alberta Elk Centre, Leduc, Alberta]
The drought facing western Canadian farmers this year has devastated many farms. It has affected all types of farmers, elk and deer farmers included. A friend of mine was giving directions to a trucker who was hauling hay from Manitoba to his farm. After the directions were given, the trucker humorously stated something about us being "a little crispy out there." Well, we're sure not hauling hay from Manitoba because we like the shade of green that Manitoban alfalfa has! Yes we're crispy!
Finding ways to get through the drought that has stunted, and in some cases annihilated, the first cut of hay and any pasture growth, is no laughing matter. It can involve some tough decisions. There have been several articles written about strategies for coping with the drought. Throughout this report I will provide website links to articles already written where applicable.
Elk
digestive anatomy
To properly understand the nutrient
requirements of elk, and how various crops and storage methods may
work with elk, a brief examination of their digestive anatomy is
useful. Elk have been described as intermediate or mixed feeders that
will naturally select a mixture of food from grasses to browse
material such as leaves. This is different from cattle or bison,
which are classified as roughage/grass eaters and will select almost
exclusively grass.
The implications this has when considering feeds for elk is that they have a smaller stomach size relative to body weight and their digestive systems are designed for more rapidly digestible feed. Conversely, cattle and bison hold feed in their rumens for a longer time to allow for digestion of more fibrous plant material. These anatomical differences should be considered when making feed decisions for elk based on information from cattle research.
Elk will consume around 2.5% of body weight under ad lib feeding; this is a similar predicted intake to what would be expected for beef cattle. In trying to manage a feeding program through a drought, it may be wise to feed less roughage, and balance the ration accordingly with a concentrate. An elk can be fed less than 2.5% of body weight total dry matter diet, provided that nutrient requirements are met in the diet. Generally, the higher the quality of the feed, the less space it takes, and the more of it elk can consume. Lower quality and high fiber forages, straws and some green feeds take up more stomach space. Elk won't eat more if their 'gut' is full.
Alfalfa
Alfalfa
grown during a dry year has been shown to have significantly lower
fiber than that grown in a regular moisture year. Full bloom alfalfa
grown in a drought will have similar fiber levels as pre-bloom
alfalfa grown in a normal year. Therefore, it would be a wise thing
to test nutritive value of hay - this year in particular. If it is of
higher quality than "usual" hay due to the drought, it
would be important to know this when calculating least-cost rations.
To access a document titled "Drought Options: Roughage Needs," go to http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/droughtoptionsroughage.html
Green
feed
Green feed can be fed to elk effectively. The
animals will typically select the more choice parts of the feed
first, and leave the coarse stem material. Removing the bale feeder,
once the bale gets low in the feeder, will allow the animals to root
through the remaining plant material and select out any remaining
leaves or grain kernels, allowing for more complete usage of the
bale.
Many crops may be salvageable as grazing or for winter feed as green feed. For more info on "green feed production," follow this link: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/droughtoptionsgreenfeed.html
Drought conditions can cause nitrates to be elevated in green feed. It should therefore be tested to prevent nitrate poisoning.
For specifics on "nitrates in feeds," refer to the Alberta Agriculture article posted at: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/0006001.html
Silage
If
forage plants show signs of drought stress, caution should be
exercised when using them as fresh forage because nitrate levels may
be high. Silage is a preferable option since the fermentation process
reduces nitrate levels. Making silage offers the opportunity to put
up high quality feed with minimum harvesting losses. See the
following link for info on the "Feeding Value of Silages":
http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/crops/forage/silage/feed1.html
Making silage is a practical method of salvaging weedy, hail-damaged, frozen, or otherwise damaged crops to produce a palatable and nutritional feed supply. However, changing the diet of any livestock should be done over a period of time (10-14 days) to allow the digestive system to adjust to the new feeds.
For information on the "Ensiling Process": http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/crops/forages/silage/silag2.html
For information on "Evaluating Silage Quality": http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/crops/forage/silage/silag3.html
Hay
silage
Round bale silage is a flexible, low-capital cost
method of preserving forage. However, variable costs and spoilage
losses can be high. Mixing hay and hay silage in a bale chopper works
well to make the feed more uniform, thus decreasing selection by the
animal. It can also be used to incorporate a lower quality hay in the
total diet.
For information about hay silage see http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0010.html or: http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/livestock/dairy/facts/foragealternate.html
Brassica
crops
Canola (all varieties except industrial-use oils) and
mustard can be fed as part of an elk's diet. Protein levels range
from 10-12% to as high as 16%. Ideally, crops should be cut in the
early podding stage, just after flowers have dropped. For cattle, it
is recommended that no more than 30% of the total feed intake is
canola or mustard hay or silage.
For more information on feeding brassica crops for hay or silage see the following article posted on the Saskatchewan Agriculture, Food and Rural Revitalization's website: http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca/DOCS/crops/forage_pasture/forage_management_production/Brassicacrops.asp
Testing
forage quality
Particularly in this year of drought when
feed is expensive, having your forages tested can enable you to feed
a diet that is properly balanced to meet the needs of your elk herd.
Whether you're wintering pregnant cows or feeding a velvet bull herd,
efficient management decisions about how much of each feedstuff to
use can be made based on the results of feed analysis of your
specific forages.
For info on collecting forage samples for feed analysis go to the following link: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/droughtoptionscollectforage.html
Corn
The
drought has not only affected the price of roughages, but also of
grains. Corn has become a viable alternative this year to
traditionally used grains. Research in cattle indicates the
performance can be equal to, or greater than, traditional free choice
silage rations. The cost effectiveness of using corn will depend on
the price of alternative forage and the price of grain, as well as
storage and feeding capabilities available on the farm.
For articles discussing the use of corn in rations: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/droughtoptionscowcornrations.html and http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/droughtoptionsfeedingsheep.html
Using
grain screenings for feed
Dockage is the unwanted
material that is removed during grain cleaning. The composition of
grain screenings will vary with the plant material. Nutrient content
of grain screenings pellets have been reported in the 12-16% crude
protein range. Talk to your local feed mill to see if lower cost
screenings may be available reduce your costs of feed.
Drought
Management Articles
Feeding Livestock During Feed
Shortages, Saskatchewan Agriculture:
http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca/docs/livestock/beef/feeds_and_nutrition/feedshortages.asp
Preparing For Drought: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/d_preparing.html
Drought, Water, Forages and Cattle: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/01061.html
Feed
for sale listings
Alberta:
http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/store/haylist.html
Saskatchewan: http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca/feedforage/default.asp?firstpick=Feed%20Grain%20and%20Forage%20Listing
Manitoba: http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/news/haylist/bja03s00.html
Alberta's
agricultural safety net
programs
http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/fiap2002/safetynetprograms.html
http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdisaster/drought_programs.html
Hopefully next year we'll see plenty of moisture and ideal growing conditions. Then we won't have to be talking to truckers hauling hay across the country about being "crispy out here."
Ostrich Farming
Not usually recommended. incubation and hatching equipment required immediately and fatality rate is highest for first 3 months of a chick's life.
Least expensive avenue
into the industry. Value of chick increases dramatically from 3--4
months to 12--18 months.
Mid-price option. Females may be fertile at about 20 months and males reach fertility between the ages of 2½ and 4 years.
No guarantee that they will be good breeders.
Most expensive for obvious reasons.
A breeding pair needs 1/3 to ½ an acre Ostriches need exercise. so pens should be at least 120--150 feet.
No consensus on type. Both hurricane and smooth wire are widely used.
Extremely important for chicks: for adults shelter is provided to keep food dry in inclement weather.
Growing availability as the industry proves itself worthy.
Ostrich meat is red, not unlike beef. It is very low in fat, and is very versatile to cook. It is becoming more available in supermarkets and is often seen in restaurants. With the increase in the number of birds being farmed, the price will continue to come down and the meat will be more affordable for the family budget.
There is a market too for the beautiful and high-quality leather produced and used in shoe, handbag, briefase and wallet manufacture. The shells from infertile eggs are also used in decorative crafts and the feathers still have a market.
Farming ostriches is nothing new, they have been reared and farmed for well over a century particularly in South Africa, originally for the fashion trade. Ostrich feathers appear on the Prince of Wales emblem; but the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and European nobles have all used these plumes over the centuries. As early as 1859 it was realised in Europe that the demand for these feathers exceeded what could be supplied by the wild stock. Prizes were therefore offered for the successful farming of ostriches in Senegal and Algeria; a Mr. Hardy won the prize to farm ostriches in Hamma.
What is new now is the more serious and efficient provision of high quality meat.
The birds farmed today are almost all from domestic stock from various parts of the world but especially from Southern Africa, and the most common breed is the domesticated hybrid, the South African Black. Other breeds are the Red Neck and the Blue Neck.
With welfare being uppermost in the minds of those in the industry already, stringent guidelines are laid down by the controlling bodies. These guidelines have been compiled by experienced farmers, vets and welfare bodies: indeed a licence has to be applied for and a veterinary officer and an environmental health officer make annual checks on every aspect from welfare to all round safety.
Ostriches are very curious creatures and approach people readily when they peck anyone or anything, especially shiny things. This is not aggressive though it can sometimes hurt. Their only defence is a forward kick with their single sharp claw and this can be dangerous. Generally speaking they are only aggressive in the breeding season or when abused --- much the same as any other farm animal.
Ostriches are most usually farmed in groups of three (trios - one cock and two hens) or 5 (colonies - two cocks and three hens). They do not need big areas to thrive but it is essential for their health and welfare that they exercise. Long fields of around 80-100 yards rather than square ones are desirable covering an area of about half acre. This is attractive to owners of smaller acreages and for diversification.
Slaughtering facilities are becoming increasingly available thereby reducing journey times; many facilities offer de-stressing paddocks for birds after their journey.
These attractive and interesting birds respond well to good husbandry and in Britain we can pride ourselves at being good stockmen and women.
How Much Hay to Stock for Winter
During the winter when there is no pasture grass to eat and your livestock are getting all of their nourishment from hay, here is a good rule of thumb to figure out how much hay you'll need to have to last through the winter;
Each full grown horse or cow will need about 1 ton (for 4 cows you would need to buy 4 tons, etc)
For goat and sheep, you can count on 1 ton for every 4 full-grown animals. (8 sheep would need 2 tons)
This estimate would be for good hay. I always get a little extra just-in-case.
Submitted by KP, WA
How to Sharpen an Axe or Hatchet
Axes have a much thinner profile than splitting mauls and mattocks. After years of sharpening, they tend to be thicker at the tip than when they were new creating more of wedge effect than a slicing action. This can be overcome by filing back material further on the blade. In other words, don't continually file just the tip of the blade but reduce the thickness of the head back one-half inch with each filing. To be sure you know how much to take off, refresh your memory by taking a look at a brand new head before starting to sharpen your old one.
Submitted by Chris, WA
Canning
Meat
By Kim
Pratt
Here on the farm we have been canning meat for many years. We raise our own beef, pork and poultry and often have excess - that is one reason to can it. Another reason is that we find it convenient to have cooked meat in the jar that can quickly be used to make some of our favorite meals.
If you don't raise your own animals as we do, but still would like the convenience of canned meat, you can simply pick out your favorite cuts from the store and start from there. Or, you might find one day that beef, pork or poultry is on sale for an astonishing price. Buy some now and can it for later use.
Why can meat, when you can freeze it? I get asked this question quite often. Certainly you can freeze meat, either cooked or frozen and that is a convenience in itself. However, meat in the freezer has a limited lifespan which varies between different cuts. After a few months or longer in the freezer you might find that due to freezer conditions or simply father time the meat has degraded somewhat. When meat is canned it can last for many years if processed and stored correctly.
What kinds of meat should you can?
Certainly you will do well Canning Meat
By
Kim Pratt
Here on the farm we have been canning meat for many years. We raise our own beef, pork and poultry and often have excess - that is one reason to can it. Another reason is that we find it convenient to have cooked meat in the jar that can quickly be used to make some of our favorite meals.
If you don't raise your own animals as we do, but still would like the convenience of canned meat, you can simply pick out your favorite cuts from the store and start from there. Or, you might find one day that beef, pork or poultry is on sale for an astonishing price. Buy some now and can it for later use.
Why can meat, when you can freeze it? I get asked this question quite often. Certainly you can freeze meat, either cooked or frozen and that is a convenience in itself. However, meat in the freezer has a limited lifespan which varies between different cuts. After a few months or longer in the freezer you might find that due to freezer conditions or simply father time the meat has degraded somewhat. When meat is canned it can last for many years if processed and stored correctly.
What kinds of meat should you can?
Certainly you will do well by canning only those cuts and types of meat that you will enjoy eating. Here is a list of some of the possibilities:
Chicken or Turkey
Rabbit
Ground or Chopped Beef or Pork
Strips, Cubes or Chunks of Beef or Pork
Clams and Oysters
Crabmeat
Fish
Dishes that contain meat (Chili, etc)
The Basics
I will be providing a link below to the USDA recommendations for canning different types of meat. Please read it before you attempt to can anything. But here is a quickie on the basics:
Meats, or dishes with meats can only be pressure cooked. Never use the boiling bath method or any other methods.
Always pressure cook the meats for the recommended amount of time. Typically this is 75 minutes for pints, and 90 minutes for quarts.
Meats can be canned either raw or cooked. I prefer the raw method because it is more convenient for me, except in the case of ground meat. This works out better if I cook it first. Either way, raw or cooked, it takes the same amount of time in the pressure cooker. Typically you do not add water or broth to the jar for raw meat (it makes it's own juices) but you do for cooked meat.
Important Information
I want to emphasize again that you should read the latest USDA information on canning meat before you start. Here is a great link:
USDA Information on Canning Meats